Earth & Space Science

Earth & Space Science

  • About This Project
    • Preface/About
    • Author/Contributors
    • For Investors/Donors
    • Teaching Guide
  • Ch 1 – Our Place in the Universe
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 1.1 Our Cosmic Address
    • 1.1.1 Overview
    • 1.1.2 What do we mean when we say “Earth is a planet”?
    • 1.1.3 What is our solar system?
    • 1.1.4 What is a galaxy?
    • 1.1.5 What is the universe?
    • 1.1 Review: Our Cosmic Address
    • 1.2 The Scale of Space
    • 1.2.1 Overview
    • 1.2.2 How Big is the Earth–Moon System?
    • 1.2.3 How Big is our Solar System?
    • 1.2.4 How far are the stars?
    • 1.2.5 How big is the Milky Way Galaxy?
    • 1.2.6 How big is the universe?
    • 1.2 Review: The Scale of the Universe
    • 1.3 Spaceship Earth
    • 1.3.1 How is Earth moving in our solar system?
    • 1.3.2 How is our solar system moving in the Milky Way Galaxy?
    • 1.3.3 How does our galaxy move relative to other galaxies in the universe?
    • 1.3 Review
  • Ch 2 – Understanding the Sky
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 2.1 Our Everyday View of the Universe
    • 2.1.1 What do we see in the local sky?
    • 2.1.2 What is the celestial sphere?
    • 2.1.3 Why do stars rise and set?
    • 2.1.4 Why do we see different constellations at different times of year?
    • 2.1 Review
    • 2.2 Seasons
    • 2.2.1 What causes the seasons?
    • 2.2.2 How do seasons differ around the world?
    • 2.2.3 Does the orientation of Earth’s axis ever change?
    • 2.2 Review
    • 2.3 Viewing the Moon: Phases and Eclipses
    • 2.3.1 Why do we see phases of the Moon?
    • 2.3.2 When do we see different phases of the Moon in our sky?
    • 2.3.3 Why do we always see the same face of the Moon?
    • 2.3.4 What are eclipses?
    • 2.3 Review
    • 2.4 Planets in the Night Sky
    • 2.4.1 How do we recognize planets in the sky?
    • 2.4.2 Why do the planets “wander”?
    • 2.4 Review
  • Ch 3 – How Science Discovered the Earth
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 3.1 The Ancient View of Earth
    • 3.1.1 How did the ancient Greeks learn that Earth is round?
    • 3.1.2 Why didn’t the ancient Greeks realize that Earth orbits the Sun?
    • 3.1 Review
    • 3.2 The Copernican Revolution
    • 3.2.1 How did the idea of Earth as a planet gain favor?
    • 3.2.2 How did Galileo seal the case for Earth as a planet?
    • 3.2 Review
    • 3.3 The Nature of Modern Science
    • 3.3.1 How does science work?
    • 3.3.2 What is a “theory” in science?
    • 3.3.3 What is the value of science?
    • 3.3 Review
    • 3.4 The Fact and Theory of Gravity
    • 3.4.1 What is gravity?
    • 3.4.2 How does gravity hold us to the ground and make objects fall?
    • 3.4.3 Why does gravity make planets round?
    • 3.4.4 How does gravity govern motion in the universe?
    • 3.4 Review
  • Chapter 4 – Planet Earth
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 4.1 A Planetary Overview
    • 4.1.1 What does Earth look like on the outside?
    • 4.1.2 What does Earth look like on the inside?
    • 4.1.3 How has Earth changed through time?
    • 4.1.4 How do we study the Earth?
    • 4.1 Review
    • 4.2 Earth System Science
    • 4.2.1 What are Earth’s four major systems?
    • 4.2.2 What drives Earth system changes?
    • 4.2.3 What IS energy and how do we measure it?
    • 4.2 Review
    • 4.3 Earth In the Context of Other Worlds
    • 4.3.1 How does Earth compare to other worlds of our solar system?
    • 4.3.2 Could there be life on other worlds?
  • Chapter 5 – Earth Through Time
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 5.1 Learning from Rocks and Fossils
    • 5.1.1 How do rocks form?
    • 5.1.2 What are fossils?
    • 5.1.3 How do we learn the ages of rocks and fossils?
    • 5.1 Review
    • 5.2 Shaping Earth’s Surface
    • 5.2.1 How do continents differ from oceans?
    • 5.2.2 What processes shape continents?
    • 5.2.3 What dangers do geological changes pose?
    • 5.2 Review
    • 5.3 Plate Tectonics — The Unifying Theory of Earth’s Geology
    • 5.3.1 What evidence led to the idea that continents move?
    • 5.3.2 How does the theory of plate tectonics explain Earth’s major features?
    • 5.3 Review
    • 5.4 A Brief Geological History of Earth
    • 5.4.1 What major changes mark Earth’s fossil record?
    • 5.4.2 What killed the dinosaurs?
    • 5.4.3 Have we humans started a new geological epoch?
    • 5.4 Review
  • Chapter 6 – Air and Water
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 6.1 Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
    • 6.1.1 What exactly is the atmosphere?
    • 6.1.2 How is water distributed on Earth?
    • 6.1.3 How does water cycle through the hydrosphere and atmosphere?
    • 6.1 Review
    • 6.2 Global Winds and Currents
    • 6.2.1 What drives global winds and currents?
    • 6.2.2 What is the general pattern of winds on Earth?
    • 6.2.3 What is the general pattern of ocean currents?
    • 6.2 Review
    • 6.3 Weather and Climate
    • 6.3.1 What is the difference between weather and climate?
    • 6.3.2 How and why does climate vary around the world?
    • 6.3.3 How do we measure and predict the weather?
  • Chapter 7 – Human Impact on the Climate
    • Chapter Introduction
    • 7.1 The Basic Science of Global Warming
    • 7.1.1 What is the greenhouse effect?
    • 7.1.2 How is human activity strengthening Earth’s greenhouse effect?
    • 7.1.3 How do we know that global warming is really happening and is human-caused?
    • 7.1.4 How does human-caused climate change compare to natural climate change?
    • 7.1 Review
    • 7.2 Consequences of Global Warming
    • 7.2.1 What are the major consequences of global warming?
    • 7.2.2 How do scientists predict future consequences of global warming?
    • 7.2.3 How will climate changes affect you and others around the world?
    • 7.2 Review
    • 7.3 Solutions to Global Warming
    • 7.3.1 What existing technologies could solve the problem of global warming?
    • 7.3.2 What future technologies might help even more?
    • 7.3.3 What does it take to implement a solution?
    • 7.3.4 What will your world look like AFTER we solve global warming?
    • 7.3 Review

I was wondering...

Is there any THING bigger than a galaxy?

Figure 1.3 – The Local Group. This diagram shows the 3-D locations of selected members of our Local Group of galaxies, of which the Milky Way is one of the two largest members. Credit: The Cosmic Perspective
Galaxies are the largest collections of stars that we find in the universe, but there are even larger structures that are made of collections of galaxies.

For example, our Milky Way Galaxy is one of several dozen galaxies that make up what we call the Local Group of galaxies. Most of the galaxies in the Local Group are much smaller than the Milky Way, but one other member, called the Andromeda Galaxy, is similar in size to the Milky Way.

Some galaxy groups contain hundreds or even thousands of galaxies, in which case they are usually called galaxy clusters.

Galaxy Cluster
Figure 1.4 – Galaxy Cluster. This photo shows the galaxy cluster known as “Abell 2744.” Credit: NASA, ESA, and J. Lotz, M. Mountain, A. Koekemoer, and the HFF Team (STScI)

On even larger scales, groups and clusters of galaxies are themselves grouped together to make what we call superclusters. Our Local Group lies on the outskirts of what we call the Local Supercluster (also known as the “Laniakea Supercluster”). Superclusters are so enormous that we cannot easily photograph them, but rather infer their existence by mapping the positions of galaxies in three dimensional space.

Finally, such maps show that even superclusters are not randomly scattered through space, but instead form great chains and sheets of galaxies. Because the maps show these chains and sheets to make a web-like pattern, it is sometimes called the cosmic web.

Figure 1.5 – The Cosmic Web. In this diagram, based on a computer model, each tiny dot represents a galaxy. Notice how the overall pattern of galaxies looks like a giant web. Credit: The Cosmic Perspective

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